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In Brief

• The definition of parent must be expansive to include immigrant family systems in education, research, and policy.
• Parenting education is resourceful to immigrant parents in supporting healthy family functioning only through culturally and socially responsive parenting education.
• Trauma-informed approaches should be prioritized when working with immigrant families in various systems.

 

Immigrant and refugee families have shared experiences often overlooked in mainstream parenting education, leaving their needs unaddressed. Immigrants and refugee parents do not share the experience with their children of what it’s like to grow up in the United States. This often leads to gaps in understanding, differences in meaning making, and acculturation disparities (Cox et al., 2021; Lincoln et al., 2016; Meschke & Juang, 2014; Silva et al., 2017). The cultural and social influences that shape parenting practices are integral to understanding and supporting such families. However, research suggests that traditional parenting education programs must often consider the diverse cultural and social values, norms, and priorities that immigrant and refugee parents bring to their parenting roles (Schilling et al., 2021; So et al., 2020). To effectively engage immigrant and refugee parents, parenting education programs must meet parents where they are and take a collaborative approach.

Redefining Parent

One area where mainstream parenting education falls short is in recognizing the broader definitions of family that immigrant and refugee family systems embody. In attempts to learn more about immigrant and refugee families, a first assumption one will commonly encounter is that Western, educated, industrialized, rich, and democratic (WEIRD) (Henrich et al., 2010) family structures can be used to understand or assess immigrant families. Unlike the Western nuclear family model, immigrant and refugee families often emphasize extended kinship networks, community support, and intergenerational relationships (Lee, 2022; Tingvold et al., 2012). Because other family members (e.g., grandparents, aunts and uncles, older siblings) may take on caregiver roles as well, these alternative family structures and dynamics can significantly influence parenting practices (Kang & Cohen, 2017). For example, limiting communication with the identified parents in the household can be an unintentional barrier to supporting the family. When educators make calls to the home but insist on speaking with parents and not other caregivers, it burdens the family system, which might have already delegated the communication role with the teacher to other caregivers in the family system.

In addition, part of broadening the definition of who a parent is within immigrant families also means understanding how immigrant family systems are structured. Roles may be redefined and reassigned depending on the level of acculturation, language proficiency, time constraints, and so on (Eltanamly et al., 2022). For example, even though the parents of a child may be heavily involved in their child’s education and support the child with homework every night, another family member may still be chosen to attend the parent–teacher conference because of English-language proficiency. Or parents might not have received the notification in their native language and missed the conference completely. In such examples, a teacher may unfairly label the parents as “disengaged” or “uninterested” in their child’s education. The implications of such a label have an impact not only on the parent–teacher relationship but also on the teacher–student relationship. If teachers believe the parents are disengaged, teachers might be less inclined to reach out to parents with concerns about their child(ren), less likely to spend time working with the student, and they may move toward disciplinary actions more quickly (Sideridis & Alghamdi, 2023).

Thus, emphasizing the traditional parent system reinforces an individualistic lens to assess a collectivistic family structure that can lead to pathologizing healthy family systems when they appear non-Western. From a clinical perspective, this can look like labeling a family as “enmeshed” or “codependent,” even though the family might have more expansive parenting roles for extended family members. By acknowledging and valuing diverse family systems, parenting education programs can better equip immigrant and refugee parents with the necessary skills and knowledge to navigate their parenting journeys and promote healthy family functioning (Nieder et al., 2023; Parra-Cardona et al., 2017; Tingvold et al., 2012).

Culturally Responsive Parenting Education

Culturally responsive parenting education can have a profound impact on the well-being of immigrant families while also strengthening their cultural identity. Leo et al. (2019) emphasized the pivotal role of culturally attended parenting education in supporting immigrant parents and enabling healthy family functioning in their cultural and social contexts. Culturally responsive parenting programs address the specific needs and challenges immigrant parents encounter (Cox et al., 2021; So et al., 2020). This approach acknowledges and respects the diverse backgrounds of immigrant families, recognizing that their parenting practices are shaped by their individual values, beliefs, and traditions. Further, culturally responsive parenting programs are deliberately designed to value and integrate alternative family structures, extended kinship networks, and community support systems that immigrant families often prioritize (Schilling et al., 2021). By validating the cultural values and practices of immigrant parents, culturally responsive parenting education empowers immigrant parents, enhancing their self-esteem and confidence in navigating their parenting challenges (Bornstein, 2013; Parra-Cardona et al., 2017), thus fostering positive parenting practices and the overall well-being of immigrant families (Hamari et al., 2021).

Culturally responsive parenting education can play a pivotal role in fostering the growth of a positive cultural identity for both parents and children. It not only empowers parents to connect with their cultural heritage but also equips them with the knowledge and skills to instill a strong sense of cultural pride and belonging in their children (Gonzalez & Padilla, 1997). A noteworthy positive outcome of culturally responsive parenting education is enhancing parent–child communication and relationships (Ceballos & Bratton, 2010). By incorporating culturally relevant examples and language, these programs facilitate effective communication between parents and their children, bridging potential gaps arising from language and culture. This improved communication strengthens the bond between parents and children, fostering heightened trust, positive self-identity, cultural resilience, understanding, and mutual respect (Cox et al., 2021; Meschke & Juang, 2014; Wang et al., 2021).

Trauma-Informed Parenting

Refugees are a subgroup of immigrants that have a trauma history, often relating to experiences of premigration (Hecker et al., 2017; Porter & Haslam, 2005; Steel et al., 2017). However, when working with and supporting immigrant and refugee families, acculturation, not trauma, is often the first experience addressed (Ngo et al., 2000). The stress and trauma that immigrant and refugee families experience during resettlement do not stop once they resettle in their host country. Instead, it increases exponentially as a result of the continued exposure to postmigration stresses coupled with unresolved premigration trauma (Bentley et al., 2019). Thus, understanding the complex experiences immigrant and refugee families face can lead to more effective and tailored parenting programs (Luna-Felix, 2023; Nieder et al., 2023; Onchwari & Keengwe, 2021).

Trauma is experienced through a relational lens (e.g., the grief experienced after losing a loved one or experiencing or witnessing acts of violence; Schore, 2009). Yehuda (2002) explains that trauma is multidimensional, contextual, spatial, physiological, and emotional. Unresolved trauma can also be (and usually is) passed down through intergenerational transmission to the offspring (Heberle et al., 2020). Further, trauma experienced directly and trauma that is transmitted generationally may not present in the same way. Thus, talking about intergenerational trauma with immigrant and refugee parents can help shed light on experiences that are often pushed to the back burner (Dalgaard & Montgomery, 2015) as they focus on their resettlement needs (e.g., employment and housing).

Incorporating a trauma-informed approach into parenting education can lead to greater insight for the families and more compassion from the educators. Practically, this looks like providing options, leading from a trauma-informed approach, and highlighting cultural strengths in courses (using discussion-based learning for those from oral traditions) (Cardona et al., 2009). When these considerations are incorporated into parenting education initiatives, it can result in profound insights for the participating families and a heightened sense of compassion from the clinicians. When clinical practices, policies, and everyday interactions are cognizant of the trauma histories our parents have experienced, Family Scientists are better equipped to support healthy functioning in immigrant and refugee families.

Conclusion

Some immigrants and refugees may have shared experiences that result from building a new life in a foreign country or growing up bicultural (or multicultural) as a child of immigrants (Chu & Thelamour, 2021). Still, there will always be nuanced differences in immigrant and refugee experiences. Families with similar cultural backgrounds and/or ethnicities may function differently depending on their past and current experiences associated, for instance, with acculturation, racial identity, religion, and trauma. Understanding the intersectionality of identities and lived experiences is necessary when working with such a diverse population. Integrating socially and culturally responsive approaches to parenting education programs will only continue building up immigrant and refugee families.

 

Author Information

• Zamzam Dini, M.A., LAMFT, doctoral student, University of Minnesota, [email protected]
• Soyoul Song, M.A., doctoral student, Family Social Science Department, Couple and Family Therapy Specialization, University of Minnesota

 

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